Intellectual Development in College Show T. Andrew Finn The primary purpose of this reading is to introduce you the work of William Perry, one of the many educators who have examined how people learn and grow as they struggle with the world of ideas, particularly in higher education. Perry�s study of students at Harvard in the 1950s and 60s is a classic example of naturalistic and qualitative research. I�ll tackle the details below. But allow me to provide a more general introduction to this topic. College is an interesting time in life. For traditional students (roughly age 18-24) there are tremendous changes and challenges packed into a very few years. This is because there are a number of things going on, including: physical, emotional, moral, and intellectual development, learning to do things more on your own, radically changing your environment and circle of contacts and friends, and coming to grips with life-shaping decisions. A number of educators have reflected on the challenges of college, including the challenges that go beyond intellectual work. One of them is Arthur Chickering. Arthur Chickering Chickering, a developmental scholar who has studied young adults pretty extensively, argues that there are seven primary growth experiences that college-age people must grapple with and make decisions about: 1. developing competence Each of these tasks would be rather daunting even if it were the only thing on one�s plate. Tackling them all at once can be a bit overwhelming! Chickering (formerly of GMU), discusses each of these tasks at length. I mention them here to let you know I�m clear you have a lot on your plate! One of the reasons that I spend time on lessons that touch some of these other areas, in both lectures and with the learning teams structure, is that I believe professors and coursework can play an important role in some of these other areas as well. I mention Chickering�s work because the work of Perry, while focused on intellectual development, actually touches many of these other areas as well. The primary purpose of the college curriculum is to foster intellectual development. Our research methods course is one of the building blocks in that development within the communication major. But did you ever stop to wonder about this path you are on, the one I�m calling �intellectual development?� It may interest you to know that many people have, and some of those have put forth theories or conceptual models to map the stages that we all go through as we amass and consolidate knowledge. Perry�s Research One of my favorites is a model by William Perry � and that�s the main subject here. Perry wrote a book entitled Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years: A scheme. Perry interviewed incoming college freshmen at Harvard in the late 1950s and early 1960s (yes, they were virtually all men back then!). And he interviewed them at the end of each of their four years in college (yes, virtually everyone either finished in four years back then, or they had long since dropped out). He would start with a very simple but open-ended question: �"what stands out for you this year?" During the course of the interview he would get them to talk about their intellectual experiences � the� new concepts they encountered and the ideas they struggled to understand. He was able to discern a number of definite patterns � a set of common experiences - across the hundreds of interviews he conducted. In his book he translated this data into a nine-position model of intellectual development. I read Perry�s book in graduate school, about six years after my intellectual struggles in college. It made a big impression on me, largely because it explained so much about what I had gone through as a college student. And that�s why I want to share it with you. I believe that if I had had a roadmap to show me the general path � the stages of intellectual growth � I might have progressed more quickly. On the other hand, I am aware that any model of �stages� is useful up to the position one is at, and less useful after that. For example, at position �four� you can understand the first three, you can probably understand the basics of number four, but you�re puzzled by the description of the positions beyond four. In other words, it�s very difficult to grasp something that�s totally foreign to you � something totally outside your realm of experience. This is where trust comes in. I�m going to ask you to �try this on.� Even if you find yourself bored, or resisting, or thinking that this just has to be wrong � do me a personal favor and stay with it. I believe Perry�s model is a pretty good approximation to the way people grow intellectually and ethically. And I believe you�ll find that it can help you understand why you may struggle with certain concepts, certain teaching styles, or certain remarks professors make in the margins of your papers. And, hopefully, that understanding can be a tool to help you move just a little bit quicker, or at least not get too frustrated when you don�t seem to be moving at all. There are three caveats to discuss before we start. First, while Perry�s work focused on college students, these stages of intellectual and moral development apply to everyone. College, because it is an intensive period of learning, is simply a structure that can accelerate people�s movement through some of the positions. Second, this is Finn�s version of Perry. The qualitative and academic nature of Perry�s work means that it is difficult to translate from a book-long explanation to a brief paragraph in this paper. To promote clarity, I�ve moved away from Perry�s language at times, and gone beyond his data, in describing the various positions. Third, remember what a model is: a set of related concepts in the world of ideas that approximates some phenomenon in the physical world. Concepts, models, theories, and paradigms are ideas and, as such, someone �made them up.� Thus, they are, in a literal sense, fictions. But if they are good concepts, models, theories, or paradigms then they are useful fictions. So don�t read this like I�m claiming that Perry�s positions (positions) are �the truth� � I�m not. (But that doesn�t mean they�re not the truth, either!) Finally, my request is that you consider three specific questions as you read the rest of this article: 1. If you had to pick one position, what position are you currently at? Perry�s �Positions� Perry�s nine categories of intellectual and ethical development are clustered in four major groups that characterize a person�s basic orientation to knowledge and the nature of knowledge (epistemology). It should be noted that Perry avoided calling these positions �stages,� since he did not want to suggest that there was a required sequential order that everyone went through during their intellectual development. A. Dualism Dualism implies that every issue is reducible to two basic positions: black and white, right & wrong, good and bad, or true and false. 1. Basic Duality We first learn about the world as children, and all we are prepared to absorb is basic duality:� everything is simple and reducible to right and wrong. Knowledge consists of facts and right answers. Knowledge is typically �received� from authorities � parents, teachers, government, or other experts. This dualism is not questioned. All problems are solvable and all questions have right answers. For students, the task is to find the �right� solution or learn the correct answer. At this point, it is assumed that teachers already know the right answers and that education is the process of imparting that information to students. Since teachers don�t simply give out the answers, students decide that teachers want them to �jump through hoops� to get there � and wonder why the teachers do not simply give them the answers. At this position, knowledge is seen as an objective body of facts. 2. Multiplicity: Pre-Legitimate In position two, people believe that truth exists, but notice that conflicting points of view exist in the world. They conclude that not all authorities (teachers, politicians, experts) are in possession of the truth � some are mistaken. At this stage knowledge is still seen as dualistic (true/false), since multiplicity is perceived simply as �I know others have a different view from mine � and they are wrong.� At this stage, multiplicity may be perceived, but it is not viewed as a sign of legitimate, epistemological uncertainty. At this position, students� typically assume that professors give assignments because they want to make them work through the issues and find the right answer. But students are often confused because the assignments appear to be too open-ended, ambiguous, or confusing. B. Multiplicity The stages of multiplicity represent coming to grips with the notion that that there is not one right answer to a question � and the implications of this view (e.g., if there is no right answer, then isn�t one answer as good as another?). Sometimes people�s reaction to multiplicity is to resort to trusting their own instincts and judgments rather than those in authority, since authority no longer appears to have the answers.. 3. Multiplicity Subordinate At position 3, multiplicity is perceived with some of its implications. At this point, people believe that there are two kinds of problems: those where the answers are known and those where the answers are not yet known. The truth may not be revealed yet in some areas or fields of study, but there is still a basic trust that it exists and there is a trust in authority for answers. At this position, knowledge is viewed as facts and principles that can be proved. Sometimes proof is difficult to find, but that is the challenge. Academic exercises in multiplicity sometimes provide a satisfying experience for students. But they can also result in confusion and frustration, because while the exercises apparently point toward multiple/conflicting points of view, the student is often looking for one right answer. 4a. Multiplicity Correlate Multiplicity correlate is represented in the view that if those in authority don't know the answer, then all opinions are valuable. Duality gives way to a more complex view of knowledge � the notion that different viewpoints can coexist and be valuable. In its most useful form, multiplicity translates into a tolerance for people who think differently. But there is also a danger in multiplicity: concluding that one viewpoint is as valuable as another. 4b. Relativism Subordinate Relative subordinate is represented in the view that there is more than one approach to a problem. Students see teachers make claims and state points of view, but do not see why one view should be preferred over another. Knowledge is seen as the way anyone of us chooses to organize and interpret the available data. One interpretation is as good as another. People view the �open-mindedness� of multiplicity as "how they want us to think," rather than as a consequence of the nature of all knowledge. What some students learn at this stage is that their job is to �shoot the bull.� They get good at writing papers in the form of �on the one hand, on the other hand,� because they think that is what teachers want. Their papers are usually filled with opinion, but typically devoid of a seriously constructed argument. Perry notes there is a certain irony at this stage: students may be trying to �give the teachers what they want,� but they are also learning the basic tools of independent thinking. C. Relativism The positions of relativism are characterized by a acceptance of the general principle that knowledge is contextual. That is, what holds true in one circumstance may not be true in another situation. Leading into the stages of relativism, people struggle with the difficult issue of knowing when to apply a particular �rule.� In relativism, the question is whether or not there are rules that can be applied to a range of diverse situations. People begin to notice how authorities (e.g., teachers) approach the �grey� areas of knowledge � that authorities weigh evidence, compare alternatives, and make judgments about which interpretation appears the most reasonable or is the most defensible. 5. Relativism Correlate, Competing, or Diffuse At position 5, relativism is perceived as a way of viewing the world of knowledge. Students get past the view that their teachers �want us to think this way� and internalize the view that knowledge depends upon the particular context one is examining. In relativism correlate there appear to be some areas where those in authority have the correct answers (e.g., the natural sciences, mathematics) and some areas where relativism must be applied (e.g., the humanities, literary criticism). In relativism competing, relativism is alternately seen as applying to the entire world and then at times individuals revert to one of the earlier world views. The position of relativism diffuse represents full-blown acceptance of relativism � but this can lead to an intellectual trap. The trap is believing that since all knowledge is relative and contextual, then everyone�s opinion on an issue is equally valid. This is the wrong lesson to draw from relativism. At position 5 relativism is accepted, but without the context of commitment to a particular approach, theory, or model for framing one�s world view. At this position, students understand that some answers are better than others and that it often depends upon the context. The student�s job is to practice evaluating solutions. But at this point students have not selected their own approach to knowledge and knowing; it is still under development. 6. Commitment Foreseen Commitment foreseen suggests that people not only embrace relativism, but they look for help in making what are admittedly subjective choices among alternative choices, views, and structures of knowledge. They foresee the need to commit to one perspective or another to reach conclusions about any particular issue. This realization may result in confusion, ambivalence, upset, or acceptance. Knowledge is seen as something that each individual constructs based on experience and background. It is no longer something permanent and external to our belief structures. D. Commitment In the positions of commitment, people realize that relativism has opened their horizons, but to take action and be effective in the world, they must put a stake in the ground; they must take a stand. In positions 7, 8, and 9, people make choices for themselves among the various options they face in the areas of knowledge and values. Old beliefs may be rejected or actively accepted, but the decision is based not in dualistic thinking but in the rich multi-faceted tapestry of relativism. People see legitimate competing alternatives, they experience genuine doubt about the best course of action or belief, and then they choose. Their subsequent choices actually serve as an affirmation of their identity. Once choices are made, people also freely commit themselves to the consequences of those choices. 7. Initial Commitment Initial commitment suggests that people understand the need to make choices about what to believe -� not from a false confidence that they have picked the right answer, but in the security that they have examined a variety of views and are freely choosing to invest in a particular approach and a particular answer. They understand that this choice is risky and that there are other defensible approaches and choices. But since their choice is based in a rigorous structure of knowledge, they take the risk without a fear that the competing opinions of others will cause them concern by undermining their choices. Knowledge � and ethics - is constructed from one�s experience; it is the integration of all the background materials and information into a world view. It is used to construct one�s overall philosophy. 8. Orientations in Implications of Commitment People realize some of the implications of commitment at position 8, such as the tradeoff between the expansive possibilities prior to commitment and the focus and narrowing that comes with commitment. One of the dilemmas in making a commitment is that choosing one option typically closes off certain other options. At position 8, people realize that the value of taking a stand with a particular commitment � and the singleness of purpose that commitment brings � outweighs the disadvantage of giving up some other set of options. Our commitments in life extend beyond our intellectual and ethical commitments. We all make commitments to careers, people (significant others and children, in particular), and causes. But it all starts with our basic structures of knowledge and ethics. At this stage, knowledge is a creative resolution between uncertainty and the need to act. Accepting a particular structure of knowledge always implies a certain stability, now at position 8 it also implies a certain flexibility. People must hold these two conflicting components of a belief structure at the same time. This requires a dynamic view of knowledge and meaning. 9. Developing Commitment Position 9, the full realization of commitment, suggests a continual expansion and updating of commitments. New issues arise in the world of knowledge. Dualists resort to a simple test of what to believe. Relativists apply a more complex test to novel issues and ideas � based in a defensible structure of knowledge and beliefs � and, thus, their subsequent commitments are defensible and explainable within the context of their overall belief structure. At this stage, people are ready to not only embrace relativism, but to see it as a strength. They have studied � perhaps mastered - a variety of skills and approaches to inquiry and knowledge. They are now familiar with some of the basic advantages and disadvantages of these approaches. From this position of strength they are ready to make commitments - about what they know and what actions they will take as a consequence of what they know. Commitments are updated as we move through life and choose places where we wish to take action or make a difference. People understand not only that responsibility goes hand in hand with commitment, but also that responsibility is empowering. Responsibility is not seen as a duty or a burden. It is understood that responsibility - freely chosen � is a declaration that one is an agent in the world and will now take a particular action. This is an empowering context in which an individual declares that he or she gets to say how life will go for them.� At position 9, people realize that commitment is power. Final Thoughts So, how did you do with the questions I asked you to consider at the beginning? Here they are again: 1.
If you had to pick one position, what position are you currently at? I�ve shared Perry�s positions with you because I think that having a �roadmap� that tells you what to expect in college (and beyond) is easier than not having such a map. But Perry�s positions are simply one structure for understanding the changes we go through as we grow intellectually and ethically. I hope they provide you with some insight to the process you are currently going through. They can also be helpful in understanding the general approach and the specific assignments that your other teachers use. I already know, from talking with some of you and from experience, that many of you feel frustration, confusion, upset, and even anger with some of the readings, the assignments, and the grading you�ve encountered in particular courses. It may be helpful to know that these teachers are essentially pushing you to �stretch� your limits and advance to the next level of intellectual development. At least, I hope that�s what they are doing! Related Readings and Links Perry, William G., Jr. (1970). Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years: A scheme. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Perry, William G., Jr. (1981). Cognitive and ethical growth: The making of meaning, in Arthur W. Chickering and Associates, The modern American college, 76-116. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Chickering, A. W. (1969). Education and identity. (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. A detailed treatment of Perry � Annotated Bibliography of Student Development Literature Patricia Cross�s Lecture from AAHE's 1998 National Conference on Higher Education What is the stage of cognitive development that usually follows dualism?Dualism is the belief that every problem is solvable, that students are to learn the right answers, and that one must obey authorities. The second stage is known as multiplicity. Multiplicity is that there are two types of problems: solvable, and also problems that the answer is not know yet.
Which of the following tends to assure that work experiences will be linked to positive well being?Which of the following tends to assure that work experiences will be linked to positive well-being? feeling that one is making competent progress toward challenging goals.
What can you reliably predict about normal age related changes in cognitive functioning in middle adulthood?What can you reliably predict about normal aged-related changes in cognitive functioning in middle adulthood? Most people need to take a little more time when solving complex problems.
|
Which of the following individuals embodies the kind of thinking that occurs at Perrys highest level position 9?
zusammenhängende Posts
Urheberrechte © © 2024 membukakan Inc.
