Which best describes the role “mr. spectator” played in the consumer revolution of the colonies?

Get help with access

Institutional access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Sign in through your institution

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth / Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

1. Click Sign in through your institution.
2. Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
3. When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
4. Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Sign in with a library card

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

1. Click Sign in through society site.
2. When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
3. Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

Personal account

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

Institutional account management

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

1. Cizek GJ, O'Day DM: Further investigations of nonfunctioning options in multiple-choice test items. Educ Psychol Meas. 1994, 54 (4): 861-872. 10.1177/0013164494054004002.

   Article  Google Scholar 

2. Downing SM: Assessment of knowledge with written test forms. International handbook of research in medical education. Edited by: Norman GR, Van der Vleuten C, Newble DI. 2002, Dorcrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, II: 647-672.

   Chapter  Google Scholar 

3. McCoubrie P: Improving the fairness of multiple-choice questions: a literature review. Med Teach. 2004, 26 (8): 709-712. 10.1080/01421590400013495.

   Article  Google Scholar 

4. Schuwirth LWT, Vleuten van der CPM: Different written assessment methods: what can be said about their strengths and weaknesses?. Med Educ. 2004, 38 (9): 974-979. 10.1111/j.1365-2929.2004.01916.x.

   Article  Google Scholar 

5. Farley JK: The multiple-choice test: writing the questions. Nurse Educ. 1989, 14 (6): 10-12. 10.1097/00006223-198911000-00003.

   Article  Google Scholar 

6. Haladyna TM, Downing SM: Validity of a taxonomy of multiple-choice item-writing rules. Appl Meas Educ. 1989, 2 (1): 51-78. 10.1207/s15324818ame0201_4.

   Article  Google Scholar 

7. Haladyna TM, Downing SM: How many options is enough for a multiple-choice test item?. Educ Psychol Meas. 1993, 53 (4): 999-1010. 10.1177/0013164493053004013.

   Article  Google Scholar 

8. Bruno JE, Dirkzwager A: Determining the optimal number of alternatives to a multiple-choice test item: An information theoretic perspective. Educ Psychol Meas. 1995, 55 (6): 959-966. 10.1177/0013164495055006004.

   Article  Google Scholar 

9. Lord FM: Optimal number of choices per item – A comparison of four approaches. J Educ Meas. 1977, 14: 33-38. 10.1111/j.1745-3984.1977.tb00026.x.

   Article  Google Scholar 

10. Tversky A: On the optimal number of alternatives at a choice point. J Math Psychol. 1964, 1 (2): 386-391. 10.1016/0022-2496(64)90010-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

11. Aamodt MG, McShane T: A meta-analytic investigation of the effect of various test item characteristics on test scores. Public Pers Manage. 1992, 21 (2): 151-160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

12. Cizek GJ, Robinson KL, O'Day DM: Nonfunctioning options: A closer look. Educ Psychol Meas. 1998, 58 (4): 605-611. 10.1177/0013164498058004004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

13. Crehan KD, Haladyna TM, Brewer BW: Use of an inclusive option and the optimal number of options for multiple-choice items. Educ Psychol Meas. 1993, 53 (1): 241-247. 10.1177/0013164493053001027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

14. Delgado AR, Prieto G: Further evidence favoring three-option items in multiple-choice tests. Eur J Psychol Assessment. 1998, 14 (3): 197-201. 10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

15. Landrum RE, Cashin JR, Theis KS: More evidence in favor of three-option multiple-choice tests. Educ Psychol Meas. 1993, 53 (3): 771-778. 10.1177/0013164493053003021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

16. Owen SV, Froman RD: What's wrong with three-option multiple choice items?. Educ Psychol Meas. 1987, 47 (2): 513-522. 10.1177/0013164487472027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

17. Shizuka T, Takeuchi O, Yashima T, Yoshizawa K: A comparison of three- and four-option English tests for university entrance selection purposes in Japan. LangT. 2006, 23 (1): 35-57.

    Google Scholar 

18. Sidick JT, Barrett GV, Doverspike D: Three-alternative multiple choice tests: An attractive option. Pers Psychol. 1994, 47 (4): 829-835. 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1994.tb01579.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

19. Trevisan MS, Sax G, Michael WB: The effects of the number of options per item and student ability on test validity and reliability. Educ Psychol Meas. 1991, 51 (4): 829-837. 10.1177/001316449105100404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

20. Trevisan MS, Sax G, Michael WB: Estimating the optimum number of options per item using an incremental option paradigm. Educ Psychol Meas. 1994, 54 (1): 86-91. 10.1177/0013164494054001008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

21. Rogers WT, Harley D: An empirical comparison of three- and four-choice items and tests: susceptibility to testwiseness and internal consistency reliability. Educ Psychol Meas. 1999, 59 (2): 234-247. 10.1177/00131649921969820.

    Article  Google Scholar 

22. Tarrant M, Ware J: Impact of item-writing flaws in multiple-choice questions on student achievement in high-stakes nursing assessments. Med Educ. 2008, 42 (2): 198-206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

23. Tarrant M, Knierim A, Hayes SK, Ware J: The frequency of item writing flaws in multiple-choice questions used in high stakes nursing assessments. Nurse Educ Today. 2006, 26 (8): 662-671. 10.1016/j.nedt.2006.07.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

24. Taylor AK: Violating conventional wisdom in multiple choice test construction. Coll Stud J. 2005, 39 (1).

25. Osterlind SJ: Constructing test items: Multiple-choice, constructed-response, performance, and other formats. 1998, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2

    Google Scholar 

26. Ebel RL, Frisbie DA: Essentials of educational measurement. 1991, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 5

    Google Scholar 

27. Precht D, Hazlett C, Yip S, Nicholls J: International Database for Enhanced Assessments and Learning (IDEAL-HK): Item analysis users' guide. 2003, Hong Kong: IDEAL-HK

    Google Scholar 

28. StatCorp: Stata Statistical Software: Release 9.2. 2005, College Station, Tx: StataCorp LP

    Google Scholar 

29. Rodriguez MC: Three options are optimal for multiple-choice items: A meta-analysis of 80 years of research. Educ Meas Issues Pract. 2005, 24 (2): 3-13. 10.1111/j.1745-3992.2005.00006.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

30. Frary RB: More multiple-choice item writing do's and don'ts. Pract Assess Res Eval. 1995, 4 (11).

31. Haladyna TM, Downing SM: A taxonomy of multiple-choice item-writing rules. Appl Meas Educ. 1989, 2 (1): 37-50. 10.1207/s15324818ame0201_3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

32. Case SM, Swanson DB: Constructing written test questions for the basic and clinical sciences. 2001, Philadelphia, PA: National Board of Medical Examiners, 3

    Google Scholar 

33. Wallach PM, Crespo LM, Holtzman KZ, Galbraith RM, Swanson DB: Use of a committee review process to improve the quality of course examinations. Adv Health Sci Educ. 2006, 11 (1): 61-68. 10.1007/s10459-004-7515-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

34. Haladyna TM, Downing SM, Rodriguez MC: A review of multiple-choice item-writing guidelines for classroom assessment. Appl Meas Educ. 2002, 15 (3): 309-334. 10.1207/S15324818AME1503_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

35. Masters JC, Hulsmeyer BS, Pike ME, Leichty K, Miller MT, Verst AL: Assessment of multiple-choice questions in selected test banks accompanying text books used in nursing education. J Nurs Educ. 2001, 40 (1): 25-32.

    Google Scholar 

36. Swanson DB, Holtzman KZ, Clauser BE, Sawhill AJ: Psychometric characteristics and response times for one-best-answer questions in relation to number and source of options. Acad Med. 2005, 80 (10 Suppl): S93-96. 10.1097/00001888-200510001-00025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

37. Haladyna TM: Developing and validating multiple-choice test items. 2004, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 3

    Google Scholar 

• The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6920/9/40/prepub

Page 2

1. SD = standard deviation; KR-20 = Kuder-Richardson 20

What were the effects of the consumer revolution on the colonies quizlet?

Which acts was passed under Charles II in an attempt to limit the widespread practice of smuggling in British North American colonies?