Learning: An adaptive process in which the tendency to perform a particular behaviour is changed by experience. Orienting response: Any response by which an organism directs appropriate sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose) toward the source of a novel stimulus.
Habituation: The simplest form of learning; learning not to respond to an unimportant event that occurs repeatedly. Classical conditioning: The process by which the response normally elicited by one stimulus (the UCS) comes to be controlled by another stimulus (the CS) as well.
Classical Conditioning: The process by which a response normally elicited by one stimulus (the UCS) comes to be controlled by another stimulus (the CS) as well.
Unconditional stimulus (UCS): In classical conditioning, a stimulus, such as food, that naturally elicits a reflective response, such as salivation.
Unconditional response (UCR): In classical conditioning, a response, such as salivation, that is naturally elicited by the USC.
Conditional stimulus (CS): In classical conditioning, a stimulus which, because of its repeated association with the UCS, eventually elicits a conditional response (CR).
Conditional response (CR): In classical conditioning, the response elicited by the CS.
Acquisition: In classical conditioning, the time during which a CR first appears and increases in frequency.
Extinction:In classical conditioning, the elimination of a response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without being followed by the UCS.
Spontaneous recovery: After an interval of time, the reappearance of a response that had previously been extinguished.
Generalization: In classical conditioning, CRs elicited by stimuli that resemble the CS used in training.
Discrimination: In classical conditioning, the appearance of a CR when one stimulus is presented (the CS+) but not another (the CS-).
Phobia: Unreasonable fear of specific objects or situations, such as insects, animals. Or enclosed spaces, learned through classical conditioning.
Fetish: Unusual sexual attachment to objects such as articles of clothing, learned through classical conditioning.
Operant conditioning: A form of learning in which behaviour is affected by its consequences. Favorable consequences strengthen the behaviour and unfavorable consequences weaken the behaviour.
Law of effect: Thorndike�s idea that the consequences of a behaviour determine whether that behaviour is likely to be repeated. Operant chamber: An apparatus in which an animal�s behaviour can be easily observed, manipulated and automatically recorded.
Cumulative recorder: A mechanical device connected to an operant chamber for the purpose of recording operant responses as they occur in time.
Discriminative stimulus: In operant conditioning, the stimulus that sets the occasion for responding because, in the past, a behaviour has produced certain consequences in the presence of that stimulus.
Three-term contingency: The relation among discriminative stimuli, behaviour, and the consequences of that behaviour. A motivated organism emits a specific response in the presence of a discriminative stimulus because, in the past, that response has been reinforced only when the discrimination stimulus is present.
Positive reinforcement: An increase in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by an appetitive stimulus.
Negative reinforcement: An increase in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by the termination of an aversive stimulus.
Punishment: A decrease in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by an aversive stimulus. Response cost: A decrease in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by the termination of an appetitive stimulus.
Extinction: A decrease in the frequency of a previously reinforced response because it is no longer followed by a reinforcer. Shaping: The reinforcement of behaviour that successively approximates the desired response until that response is fully acquired.
Intermittent reinforcement: The occasional reinforcement of a particular behaviour; produces responding that is more resistant to extinction. Fixed-ratio schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses have been made since the previous reinforcement (or the start of the session).
Variable-ratio schedule: A schedule of reinforcement similar to a fixed-ratio schedule but characterized by a variable response requirement having a particular mean.
Fixed-interval schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response that is made after a fixed interval of time since the previous reinforcement (or the start if the session) is reinforced.
Variable-interval schedule: A schedule of reinforcement similar to a fixed-interval schedule but characterized by a variable time requirement having a particular mean.
Generalization: In operant conditioning, the occurrence of responding when a stimulus similar (but not identical) to the discriminative is present.
Discrimination: In operant conditioning, responding only when a specific discriminative stimulus is present but not when similar stimuli are present.
Primary reinforcer: A biologically significant appetitive stimulus, such as food or water.
Primary punisher: A biologically significant appetitive stimuli, such as pain.
Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcer (or punisher): A stimulus that acquires its reinforcing (or punishing) properties through association with a primary reinforcer (or punisher). Sometimes referred to as a secondary reinforcer (or punisher).
Superstitious behaviour: A behaviour that in response to the noncontingent occurrence of an appetitive stimulus; appears to cause a certain event but in reality does not.
Escape response: An operant response acquired through negative reinforcement that terminates an aversive stimulus.
Avoidance response: An operant response acquired through negative reinforcement that prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring.
Conditioned flavor-aversion learning: A type of learning in which a substance is avoided because its flavor has been associated with illness.
Stimulus equivalence: A type of learning in which stimuli become equivalent even though the organism has never observed a relation between them; may be involved in learning how to read and manipulate symbols.
Behaviour pharmacology: The study of how drugs influence behaviour; combines the principle of operant conditioning with the principles of drug action.
Carlson, N. C., & Buskst, W. (1997). Psychology: The science of behaviour (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.